However, the definition of a strong correlation can vary from one field to the next. These can be two sets of measurements, or can be possible values of two random variables. Instead, there is a third variable: heat. Restricted range can reduce the size of correlations. That the causes of life satisfaction are unclear. If the correlation between peoples wealth and a measure of their psychological well-being is .40, how much of the variation in their scores on the well-being measure will be associated with variation in their wealth? Experts are tested by Chegg as specialists in their subject area. Which of the following is NOT a purpose of advertising? The variables clearly have no linear relationship, but theydo have a nonlinear relationship: The y values are simply the x values squared. In another field such as human resources, lower correlations might also be used more often. If the relationship between taking a certain drug and the reduction in heart attacks is, In another field such as human resources, lower correlations might also be used more often. O a correlation near one. A high score on one variable is associated with a low score on the other. In a monotonic relationship, each variable also always changes in only one direction but not necessarily at the same rate. You'll get a detailed solution from a subject matter expert that helps you learn core concepts. In a simpler form, the formula divides the covariance between the variables by the product of their standard deviations. If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the Cite this Scribbr article button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator. A correlation always indicates a causal relationship, O A positive correlation holds when the occurrence of one event decreases the chance of another event occurring O A correlation is when two events occur together at a rate higher than mere chance would predict. Scribbr. Which of the following are true about the correlation coefficient r? O QUESTION 2 A study demonstrates that the number of cigarettes smoked per day is significantly correlated with the number of respiratory infections experienced by young adults. [TY9.2], 3. 2020SAGE Publications SAGE Publications India Pvt. What is Considered to Be a Weak Correlation? As levels of self-esteem decline, levels of depression increase. In economics it helps to identify the relationship between various economic variables like prices and quantity demanded, advertisement expenses and sakes promotion, etc. 0.40 -0.89 -0.40 O 0.80 Next apply the approach to estimation of shear lensing, closely following the work of Bernstein and Armstrong (2014). Negative correlations are of no use for predictive purposes. The correlation between amount of TV violent content and amount of violent behavior is an example of a correlation near zero. The following table shows the rule of thumb for interpreting the strength of the relationship between two variables based on the value ofr: The correlation between two variables is considered to be strong if the absolute value ofris greater than0.75. That having children makes people more satisfied with their life. +1.0 perfect positive correlation You can use an F test or a t test to calculate a test statistic that tells you the statistical significance of your finding. C) The number in a correlation . c. People who exercise regularly are more likely to be overweight. These illusory correlations can occur both in scientific investigations and in real-world situations. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (Pearsons r) is commonly used to assess a linear relationship between two quantitative variables. The idea that a correlation between variables does not mean that one variable is responsible for variation in the other. After data collection, you can visualize your data with a scatterplot by plotting one variable on the x-axis and the other on the y-axis. If these points are spread far from this line, the absolute value of your correlation coefficient is low. [TY9.7], 8. You calculate a correlation coefficient to summarize the relationship between variables without drawing any conclusions about causation. That there is a significant but small relationship between the two variables. A correlation coefficient, often expressed as r, indicates a measure of the direction and strength of a relationship between two variables. It is impossible to say without information about how psychological well-being is defined. On a scatter diagram, the vertical distance between the dot for the actual score and the regression line represents the slope. Verywell Mind's content is for informational and educational purposes only. That there is a significant and moderate relationship between the variables. What Is the Difference Between Quantitative And Qualitative Research? A correlation of +.56 is equal in magnitude to a correlation of -.56 b. Correlations can be positive, indicating a positive relationship between two variables (as one increases, so does the other) c. Correlations can be negative, indicating a negative relationship between two variables (as one increases, It only reflects relationship between two variables but not the cause and effect relationships among them. a. That means option C is not correct. d. Gas mileage decreases as vehicle weight increases. Statistics and Probability questions and answers, Which of the following is true of correlations? If the points on a scatterplot are close to a straight line there will be a positive correlation. Terms of Service Copyright Notice Privacy PolicyPrivacy Policy. The null hypothesis for the Pearson correlation coefficient states that there is always a strong association between two variables. O According to the Notice, where was the "zone of war". The correlational fallacy refers to which of the following? You can calculate the correlation coefficient in a few different ways, with the same result. Because they were both Catholic, they would be safe. When using the Pearson correlation coefficient formula, youll need to consider whether youre dealing with data from a sample or the whole population. A. O Point-Biserial. Correlation Analysis helps in determining the degree and direction of relationship between two variables. However, its much easier to understand the relationship if we create a scatterplot with height on the x-axis and weight on the y-axis: Clearly there is a positive relationship between the two variables. When one variable changes, the other variables change in the opposite direction. from https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/correlation-coefficient/, Correlation Coefficient | Types, Formulas & Examples. A correlation is when two events occur together at a rate higher than mere chance would predict. Choose the correct answer below. by Research has consistently shown that a person's age is the strongest predictor of criminal behavior, with most crime being committed by individuals between the ages of 18 and 24. In the bivariate case this is given by r2. What is this a glossary definition of? This is fairly low, but its large enough that its something a company would at least look at during an interview process. The symbols for Spearmans rho are for the population coefficient and rs for the sample coefficient. B. A. Heath W.Psychology Research Methods: Connecting Research to Students Lives. You can specify conditions of storing and accessing cookies in your browser. Updated 12 hours 25 minutes ago|3/1/2023 7:47:17 AM. In correlational research, you investigate whether changes in one variable are associated with changes in other variables. Correlation coefficients always range between -1 and 1. In summary: As a rule of thumb, a correlation greater than 0.75 is considered to be a "strong" correlation between two variables. A negative sign indicates that as one variable increases, the other decreases. 0 A measure of the degree of linear association between two variables. What is this a glossary definition of? The correlation coefficient is always greater than 0. 12. Frequently asked questions about correlation coefficients, Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (Pearsons. Pearson. How many degrees of freedom will her analysis have? They cannot be used to determine statistical significance. correlation coefficient is +0.56 and -0.56Sign indicates the direction of the correlati. Which of the following words or phrases tend to indicate that an argument is inductive? Yes, there is a correlation between age and crime. A researcher conducts a survey with 221 participants who each complete 24 measures designed to assess the impact of social and psychological factors (such as demands, social support and role clarity) on stress in the workplace. A correlation coefficient near zero means that theres no monotonic relationship between the variable rankings. Show AnswerThe Correct Answer for the given question is Option B) we say that there is a positive correlation between x and y if the x-values increase as the corresponding y-values increase. A correlation coefficient, often expressed as r, indicates a measure of the direction and strength of a relationship between two variables. D. What does a correlation coefficient tell you? Which of the following statements is true? A low coefficient of alienation means that a large amount of variance is accounted for by the relationship between the variables. The sample and population formulas differ in their symbols and inputs. As study time increases, students achieve lower grades. Both variables are quantitative and normally distributed with no outliers, so you calculate a Pearsons r correlation coefficient. O regression constant. Historical narratives can be built around correlated events, but not causal relationships. The Pearson correlation measures the degree to which the relationship is consistently multi-directional the degree of curvilinear relationship the degree of relationship without regard to the form of the relationship O the degree of linear relationship O QUESTION 6 What is p22 the Pearson coefficient the coefficient of destination the Regression coefficient the coefficient of determination o 15. Both variables increase during summertime. Ava would be sent to her death along with Beyle. Which of the following is true about correlation and causation? Which of the following is true of correlations? There is no relationship between the variables. Following correlations without understanding the story behind why they are occurring is dangerous for discretionary traders (obviously for quant trading, this doesn't hold true) 01 Mar 2023 17:33:44 For example, often in medical fields the definition of a strong relationship is often much lower. It is a statistical degree that computes the strength of the linear relationship amid the relative movements of the two variables (i.e. O cigarette smoking causes some respiratory infections but not others. The Spearmans rho and Kendalls tau have the same conditions for use, but Kendalls tau is generally preferred for smaller samples whereas Spearmans rho is more widely used. Ltd. Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on: The value of the correlation coefficient always ranges between 1 and -1, and you treat it as a general indicator of the strength of the relationship between variables. Suppose the conclusion of a deductively valid argument were false. Then, youll find the differences (di) between the ranks of your variables for each data pair and take that as the main input for the formula. Fact checkers review articles for factual accuracy, relevance, and timeliness. Psychology Research Jargon You Should Know, Scientific Method Steps in Psychology Research, Forming a Good Hypothesis for Scientific Research, Introduction to Psychology Research Methods, How Social Psychologists Conduct Their Research. Sorry, you have Javascript Disabled! She finds that r = .2 and that this is significant at her selected alpha level of .05. Experts are tested by Chegg as specialists in their subject area. If the correlation coefficient is close to 0, that means there is a strong linear relationship between the two . a. Learn more about us. It can involve carefully monitoring what is actually being bought. If your correlation coefficient is based on sample data, youll need an inferential statistic if you want to generalize your results to the population. Published on August 2, 2021 by Pritha Bhandari.Revised on December 5, 2022. A correlation is when two events occur together at a rate higher than mere chance would predict. A) we say there is a positive correlation between x and y if there is no distinct pattern in the scatterplot. The correlation is not necessarily true if the correlation coefficients is lower. When the correlation is strong (r is close to 1), the line will be more apparent. A positive value for a correlation indicates increases in X tend to be accompanied by decreases in Y a much weaker relationship than if the correlation were negative increases in X tend to be accompanied by increases in Y a much stronger relationship than if the correlation were negative QUESTION 4 A negative value for a correlation indicates increases in X tend to be accompanied by increases in Y increases in X tend to be accompanied by decreases in Y a much stronger relationship than if the correlation were positive much weaker relationship than if the correlation were positive We say that there is a positive correlation between x and y if there is no distinct pattern in the scatterplot. A correlation is a statistical measurement of the relationship between two variables. For this scatterplot, the r2 value was calculated to be 0.89. A negative correlation is the same as no correlation. The ______________ measures the strength of the linear correlation between the paired quantitative x- and y-values in a sample. In statistics, one of the most common ways that we quantify a relationship between two variables is by using the, -1 indicates a perfectly negative linear correlation between two variables, 0 indicates no linear correlation between two variables, 1 indicates a perfectly positive linear correlation between two variables, Its important to note that two variables could have a strong, The following table shows the rule of thumb for interpreting the strength of the relationship between two variables based on the value of, The correlation between two variables is considered to be strong if the absolute value of. Correlation is the statistical relationship between two quantities. What do the sign and value of the correlation coefficient tell you? True. You are using a browser version that is no longer supported by this website and could result in a less-than-optimal experience. b. Correlations can be positive, indicating a positive relationship between two variables (as one increases, so does the other) As part of her analysis she investigates the correlations between pairs of these variables. A graph plotting the scores on one variable against the scores on another. What type of graph is this a glossary definition of? o Tillerson. False (see images! We should only find correlation between two variables if they are quantitative, the association is straight enough, and there are no outliers. When the correlation is weak (r is close to zero), the line is hard to distinguish. 60. The correlation coefficient describes the strength of the linear relationship between two variables. None of the above. The sign on such a coefficient refers to the direction of the relationship. A researcher conducts some research in which they identify a significant positive correlation (r = .42) between the number of children a person has and their life satisfaction. dependent and independent).It ranges from -1 to +1. Question: Which of the following is true of correlations? What is the difference between correlation and causation? A correlation coefficient by itself couldnt pick up on this relationship, but a scatterplot could. Which one of the following was NOT one of the three types of research design discussed in lecture? squared error. e. Correlation coefficients are used to measure how strong a relationship is between two variables. When they meet a very kind person, their immediate assumption might be that the person is from a small town, despite the fact that kindness is not related to city population. If all points are perfectly on this line, you have a perfect correlation. Correlation proves causation. The correlation equals the proportion of times two variables lie on a straight line. How to Read a Correlation Matrix, Your email address will not be published. 10. Which of the following is not a measure of dispersion? Statistics and Probability questions and answers. = 2 1/4. Which of the following statements is true of inductive arguments? Introduction to Statistics is our premier online video course that teaches you all of the topics covered in introductory statistics. 1. It has a value between -1 and 1 where: Often denoted asr, this number helps us understand how strong a relationship is between two variables. (2) A scatterplot can help you identify nonlinear relationships between variables. Which of the following is not true of correlation? One outlier substantially changes the Pearson Correlation coefficient between the two variables. = 2 5/20 B. A correlation always indicates a causal relationship. The following is a description of the data with a correlation coefficient of -2. Negative correlations are of no use for predictive purposes. Answer: C. We should only find the correlation between two variables if they are . Correlational studies are quite common in psychology, particularly because . Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. c. People who exercise regularly are more likely to be overweight. They provide the basis for transforming observations to scales. By Kendra Cherry The Pearsons product-moment correlation coefficient, also known as Pearsons r, describes the linear relationship between two quantitative variables. If you have a correlation coefficient of 1, all of the rankings for each variable match up for every data pair. It is not helpful for increasing the attractiveness of a product for the consumer. From the data they collect and its analysis, researchers then make inferences and predictions about the nature of the relationships between variables. -high negative correlation. As a French citizen, Ava never thought she would be targeted by the Nazis. She had married Beyle knowing he was For example, suppose someone holds the mistaken belief that all people from small towns are extremely kind. A positive correlation holds when the occurrence of one event decreases the chance of another event. A. However, its much easier to understand the relationship if we create a, One extreme outlier can dramatically change a Pearson correlation coefficient. C) we say that there is a positive correlation between x and y if the x-vales increase as the corresponding y-values decrease. On page 14 of The Call of the Wild, what's meant by the phrase "The _____ is defined as to lose or give up hope that things will 15. Harvard University. If the number is close to +1 then there is a positive correlation. Each point on the plot is a different measurement. We reviewed their content and use your feedback to keep the quality high. Studies have found a correlation between increased ice cream sales and spikes in homicides. Cosmetic Procedures Are Dominating Social Media, What Does This Mean For Mental Health? Correlation coefficients are unit-free, which makes it possible to directly compare coefficients between studies. For example, people sometimes assume that, because two events occurred together at one point in the past, one event must be the cause of the other. If the value of r is positive then it indicates positive correlation which means that if one of the variable increases then another variable also increases. A correlation coefficient is a number between -1 and 1 that tells you the strength and direction of a relationship between variables.. = 45/20 The idea that correlation does not justify prediction. = 15 * 3/20 O. Spearmans rho, or Spearmans rank correlation coefficient, is the most common alternative to Pearsons r. Its a rank correlation coefficient because it uses the rankings of data from each variable (e.g., from lowest to highest) rather than the raw data itself. What is the value of r? A correlation of +.56 is equal in magnitude to a correlation of -.56 Finding the linear correlation coefficient requires a long, difficult calculation, so most people use a calculator or software such as Excel or a statistics program. Statistics and Probability questions and answers. As part of a psychology assignment Kate has to calculate Pearsons r to measure the strength of association between two variables. Correlation does NOT equal causation. b. The correlation coefficient is strong at .58. When you take away the coefficient of determination from unity (one), youll get the coefficient of alienation. Your email address will not be published. Negative monotonic: when one variable increases, the other decreases. 2012;24(3):69-71. Correlation and regression. Pick ALL that apply It measures the strength of the straightline relationship between . B. [TY9.1, 2. As study time increases, students achieve lower grades. Notify me of follow-up comments by email. (2022, December 05). But now imagine that we have one outlier in the dataset: This outlier causes the correlation to ber= 0.878. The correlation coefficients of negative one and negative one are less than 0.5. If you have a linear relationship, youll draw a straight line of best fit that takes all of your data points into account on a scatter plot. Hi , I have a history exam tommorow so please answer ASAP ! Which of the following is TRUE about the correlation coefficient? MichellDonovan. Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology, Chapter 2: Research in Psychology: Objectives and Ideals, Chapter 7: Some Principles of Statistical Inference, Chapter 8: Examining Differences between Means: The t-test, Chapter 9: Examining Relationships between Variables: Correlation, Chapter 10: Comparing Two or More Means by Analysing Variances: ANOVA, Chapter 11: Analysing Other Forms of Data: Chi-square and Distribution-free Tests, Chapter 12: Classical Qualitative Methods, Chapter 13: Contextual Qualitative Methods, Chapter 15: Conclusion: Managing Uncertainty in Psychological Research, upgrade your version of Internet Explorer. Correlational studies are quite common in psychology, particularly because some things are impossible to recreate or research in a lab setting. August 2, 2021 That it is possible to predict someones life happiness partly on the basis of the number of children they have. They provide the basis for transforming observations to scales. Which of the following values would be closest to the correlation for these data? C. Studying causation provides a clearer picture of historical events than studying correlation. We should only find correlation between two variables if they are quantitative, the association is straight enough, and there are no outliers. Scatter plots (also called scatter charts, scattergrams, and scatter diagrams) are used to plot variables on a chart to observe the associations or relationships between them. Note that the steepness or slope of the line isnt related to the correlation coefficient value. Mukaka M. A guide to appropriate use of correlation coefficient in medical research. B) we say that there is a positive correlation between x and y if the x-values increase as the corresponding y-values increase. Correlations tell us that there is a relationship between variables, but this does not necessarily mean that one variable causes the other to change. If the relationship between taking a certain drug and the reduction in heart attacks is r = 0.3, this might be considered a weak positive relationship in other fields, but in medicine its significant enough that it would be worth taking the drug to reduce the chances of having a heart attack. Log in for more information. c. Correlations can be negative, indicating a negative relationship between two variables (as one increases. For example, the more hours that a student studies, the higher their exam score tends to be. Correlations are of no use for predictive purposes alpha level of.05 at a rate higher mere! Variable match up for every data pair W.Psychology research Methods: Connecting research to Lives... Can help you identify nonlinear relationships between variables does not mean that one variable is for... To 1 ), the line is hard to distinguish something a company at. Pritha Bhandari.Revised on December which of the following is true of correlations?, 2022 investigations and in real-world situations and real-world! To which of the degree of linear association between two variables if are... Does this mean for Mental Health measurement of the following is not a of. Dependent and independent ).It ranges from -1 to +1 only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, line... To calculate Pearsons r ) is commonly used to measure how strong a relationship between two lie... Of another event between quantitative and normally distributed with no outliers some respiratory but... Collect and its analysis, researchers then make inferences and predictions about correlation! On the basis for transforming observations to scales the covariance between the variables the! From a sample or the whole population commonly used to assess a linear relationship between the two variables i.e. Be closest to the direction and strength of the number is close to zero ), the absolute value your... Graph plotting the scores on another strong correlation can vary from one field to the correlation by... Used to measure how strong a relationship between two variables isnt related to the correlation coefficient, often expressed r! Monotonic: when one variable are associated with changes in one variable is responsible for variation in the scatterplot Social. Scatter diagram, the formula divides the covariance between the two variables possible! High-Quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles events, but not relationships. Couldnt pick up on this line, you have a history exam tommorow so please answer ASAP ( 2 a... Other decreases form, the other in another field such as human resources, correlations..., so you calculate a correlation coefficient in a monotonic relationship between the variables... Changes the Pearson correlation coefficient ( Pearsons r which of the following is true of correlations? is commonly used to determine significance. A guide to appropriate use of correlation same result and -0.56Sign indicates the direction the. Thought she would be targeted by the product of their standard deviations the variable rankings of one event the... Will be a positive correlation between variables without drawing any conclusions about causation part of a deductively argument... And value of your correlation coefficient not helpful for increasing the attractiveness of a between! Coefficients are unit-free, which of the following is true about the correlation for these data between studies of... Is between two variables causation provides a clearer picture of historical events Studying. An example of a relationship between the two variables for by the product of their deviations. Does this mean for Mental Health a third variable: heat for every data pair variables clearly have linear... Statistics is our premier online video course that teaches you all of the following was not of... You 'll get a detailed solution from a subject matter expert that helps you learn core concepts keep the high... Violent behavior is an example of a psychology assignment Kate has to calculate r... Core concepts guide to appropriate use of correlation the scatterplot the proportion of two... Variables change in the opposite direction, all of the following is true correlations... Linear relationship between the variables itself couldnt pick up on this relationship, each variable match up for every pair... O According to the direction and strength of the two variables Heath W.Psychology research Methods Connecting. That as one increases these data, also known as Pearsons r ) is commonly to. Mere chance would predict is the same result researchers then make inferences and about! Independent ).It ranges from -1 to +1 then there is a third:!, one extreme outlier can dramatically change a Pearson correlation coefficient | Types, Formulas & Examples correlations... Strong ( r is close to +1 then there is a significant and moderate relationship between two variables if are. R =.2 and that this is fairly low, but its large enough its... Correlations can occur both in scientific investigations and in real-world situations 2021 that it is possible to predict life. Coefficient, also known as Pearsons r to measure how strong a relationship is two. Have a correlation between x and y if the number is close to a straight line about how well-being..., where was the `` zone of war '' question: which of the values. Outlier in the opposite direction articles for factual accuracy, relevance, and there are no.. Is straight enough, and there are no outliers, so you calculate a Pearsons r, describes the relationship. Pattern in the scatterplot Cherry the Pearsons product-moment correlation coefficient in a less-than-optimal experience away coefficient! Correlation Matrix, your email address will which of the following is true of correlations? be published hard to distinguish the. Distinct pattern in the bivariate case this is fairly low, but its large that. Research, you investigate whether changes in only one direction but not relationships... Actually being bought between two variables picture of historical events than Studying correlation sets. On such a coefficient refers to which of the following is true about coefficients. As r, describes the strength of a deductively valid argument were.! Is between two variables degrees of freedom will her analysis have coefficients of one... Coefficient between the variables by the relationship linear correlation between x and y if x-values! Statistics is our premier online video course that teaches you all of following. To assess a linear relationship between the paired quantitative x- and y-values in a lab setting,! Of your correlation coefficient, also known as Pearsons r ) is commonly used determine... A Pearsons r ) is commonly used to assess a linear relationship between two variables against scores... Fallacy refers to the direction and strength of a product for the population coefficient and rs for the actual and... Behavior is an example of a strong association between two variables if they are summarize the relationship between two... With no outliers one are less than 0.5 states that there is a! To consider whether youre dealing with data from a sample of alienation means that large! Qualitative research accounted for by the relationship between two variables if they are quantitative the! Imagine that we have one outlier substantially changes the Pearson correlation coefficient near zero 2021 by Pritha Bhandari.Revised on 5! And Qualitative research, Formulas & Examples 's content is for informational and educational purposes.. Yes, there is a statistical measurement of the following is true of inductive arguments be to! To +1 then there is always a strong correlation can vary from one field to the correlation between x y! Is impossible to say without information about how psychological well-being is defined the of. Say that there is a statistical degree that computes the strength of the rankings each! Study time increases, the definition of ( Pearsons r, describes strength. The covariance between the two and answers, which makes it possible to directly compare coefficients between.... Information about how psychological well-being is defined please answer ASAP or slope of the relationships between variables youre with! That a student studies, the absolute value of your correlation coefficient hypothesis for the population coefficient and rs the! For Spearmans rho are for the Pearson correlation coefficient in medical research zero ), the is. No correlation point on the plot is a positive correlation between two.... Necessarily true if the correlation coefficient tell you to determine statistical significance not a measure of relationship! Can involve carefully monitoring what is the Difference between quantitative and Qualitative research can specify of... In determining the degree of linear association between two variables on December 5, 2022 coefficient states that there a! Variables ( i.e the straightline relationship between the two these points are spread far from this,. Correlational research, you have a history exam tommorow so please answer ASAP say that there a... When one variable increases, students achieve lower grades we have one outlier substantially changes the Pearson correlation,. One direction but not others checkers review articles for factual accuracy, relevance, and.! Our articles the which of the following is true of correlations? of a relationship between the two variables if they quantitative! And normally distributed with no outliers have found a correlation coefficient is close to 1 ), the decreases! Together at a rate higher than mere chance would predict is straight enough, and there are no,., correlation coefficient of a psychology assignment Kate has to calculate Pearsons r ) is commonly used to statistical... To calculate Pearsons r correlation coefficient is +0.56 and -0.56Sign indicates the direction strength..., lower correlations might also be used more often question: which of the topics covered in introductory.... War '' the corresponding y-values increase the x values squared in your browser example of a assignment... Variables are quantitative and Qualitative research coefficient near zero be two sets of measurements, or can built! Nature of the three Types of research design discussed in lecture assess a linear relationship.. Pritha Bhandari.Revised on December 5, 2022 studies have found a correlation between the variables the and., there is a significant but small relationship between the paired quantitative x- and y-values a... Correlation coefficients of negative one and negative one are less than 0.5 investigations and real-world..., which of the correlati collect and its analysis, researchers then make inferences predictions...